Perspectives in Development
1. Concept of Growth, Development, and Maturation
Growth, development, and maturation form the biological foundation of child change, distinguishing quantitative physical advances from qualitative holistic progress and innate readiness.
- Growth: Quantitative, structural increases (e.g., height/weight via nutrition). Rapid in infancy (25 cm/year), slows post-adolescence. Measured by WHO charts.
- Development: Qualitative/quantitative changes across domains (physical, cognitive, emotional, social). Lifelong, interactive (nature-nurture).
- Maturation: Genetically timed biological ripening (e.g., puberty at 10-14 years). Universal, enabling skills (e.g., walking at 12 months).
Gesell’s Maturational Theory (1925 Study): Development follows genetic timetables; twin studies showed 80% similarity in milestones, emphasizing readiness over training.
Piaget’s Equilibration (1936): Developmental stages as adaptive balance; longitudinal studies on 100+ children revealed assimilation/accommodation drive domain integration.
Indian: Durganand Sinha (1982 Cross-Cultural Study): Family roles accelerate social maturation in joint systems; surveys of 500 Indian families linked collectivism to earlier emotional growth.
| Aspect | Growth | Development | Maturation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nature | Quantitative | Holistic (domains) | Genetic |
| Example | Bone elongation | Language mastery | Teething (6 months) |
| Influence | Environment (diet) | Interaction | Minimal external |
Indian Context: Malnutrition (NFHS-5: 35% stunting) hampers growth; RTE mandates monitoring.
Implications: Teachers monitor growth curves; delay maturation-based activities.
2. Principles of Development
Principles describe development’s patterned, predictable nature, guiding equitable education.
- Continuous: Gradual changes; no leaps.
- Sequential/Orderly: Fixed order (e.g., sitting before walking).
- General to Specific: Broad → detailed (e.g., grasp → pincer).
- Integrated: Domains link (e.g., motor aids cognition).
- Individual Variation: Unique paces.
- Predictable/Plastic: Patterns with malleability.
- Cephalocaudal: Head-to-toe.
- Proximo-Distal: Center-outward.
- Spiral/Cyclical: Revisiting at higher levels.
- Multidirectional: Gains/trade-offs.
Piaget’s Stage Theory (1952 Longitudinal Study): Sequential cognitive integration; observed 1,000+ children, showing equilibration cycles.
Vygotsky’s ZPD (1934): Social spirals; studies in Soviet schools demonstrated scaffolding refines general skills.
Gesell’s Milestones (1940 Norms): Cephalocaudal from 5,000 observations; emphasized genetic order.
Erikson (1950 8 Stages Study): Multidirectional crises; biographical analyses linked resolution to integration.
Baltes’ Lifespan Model (1987 Meta-Analysis): Plasticity/multidirectionality; reviewed 200+ studies on selective optimization.
Indian: Sudhir Kakar (1978 “Inner World”): Cultural cyclicality; psychoanalytic study of 200 families showed joint systems speed social specificity.
Indian: Sinha (1986 Field Study): Variation by SES; 300 rural/urban samples revealed malnutrition delays sequences.
| Principle | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Cephalocaudal | Head-to-foot | Head control (3 months) |
| Spiral | Cyclical refinement | Play: solitary → cooperative |
Implications: Spiral curricula (NCF 2005); IEPs for variations.
3. Factors Influencing Development
Development results from internal/external interplay, per ecological models.
- Heredity: Genetic blueprint (50% IQ).
- Environment: Physical/social/stimulation.
- Socioeconomic: Poverty delays (40% Indian undernourished).
- Cultural: Collectivism fosters social skills.
- Health: Prenatal care; ACEs disrupt.
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems (1979 Model): Nested influences; longitudinal study of 500 families showed mesosystem (school-family) boosts 25% outcomes.
Locke vs. Rousseau Debate (17th-18th C.): Nurture (tabula rasa) vs. nature; modern twin studies (Bouchard, 1990: 70% heritability for traits).
Epigenetics (Meaney, 2001 Rat Study): Environment alters gene expression; maternal care doubled stress resilience in offspring.
Indian: Misra (2010 Indigenous Psych.): Relational self; surveys of 1,000 families linked interdependence to emotional factors.
Implications: Foster microsystems; screen malnutrition.
4. Developmental Milestones & Hazards
Milestones are age-typical; hazards disrupt.
- Infancy (0-1 Yr): Rolls (4-6 mo), walks (12 mo).
- Toddler (1-3 Yr): Runs (2 yr), sentences (2 yr).
- Preschool (3-6 Yr): Counts 10 (4 yr).
- School Age (6-12 Yr): Reads (6-7 yr).
- Hazards: Malnutrition (motor delay); trauma (attachment issues).
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory (1969 Longitudinal): Secure base; 100+ orphan studies showed early separation hazards emotional milestones.
Harlow’s Monkey Experiments (1958): Contact comfort critical; isolated monkeys delayed social milestones 50%.
WHO/CDC Milestones (2022 Update): Evidence from 10,000+ global children; iron deficiency linked to 20% motor hazards.
Indian: Kapur (2009 Study): 500 slum kids; pollution hazards cognitive milestones by 15%.
| Age | Milestone | Hazard | Intervention |
|---|---|---|---|
| Infancy | Grasps (3 mo) | Malnutrition | Supplementation |
| Toddler | Parallel play (2 yr) | ACEs | Therapy |
Implications: ASQ screenings; red flags like no babbling.
5. Branches of Psychology
Branches study mind/behavior for CDP assessment.
- Cognitive: Mental processes (memory).
- Developmental: Lifespan changes.
- Social: Interactions.
- Educational: Learning (ZPD).
- Clinical: Mental health.
- Indian Indigenous: Self in philosophy.
Wundt’s Structuralism (1879 Lab): Introspection; first psych lab broke mind into elements.
James’ Functionalism (1890 “Principles”): Adaptive behaviors; influenced educational applications.
Skinner’s Behaviorism (1938 Operant Conditioning Study): Reinforcement; pigeon experiments shaped classroom management.
Freud’s Psychoanalysis (1900 “Interpretation”): Unconscious drives; case studies like Little Hans for child development.
Indian: Girindra Shekhar Bose (1933 “Concept of Repression”): Hindu-Buddhist integration; studies merged Eastern self with Western branches.
Implications: Educational psych for motivation (self-efficacy).
6. Physical – Motor Development
Gross/fine skills per directional principles.
- Gross: Crawling (7 mo), running (2 yr).
- Fine: Pincer (9 mo), writing (5 yr).
- Stages: Reflexive → Fundamental → Specialized.
Thelen’s Dynamic Systems (1990 Infant Studies): Motor emerges from interactions; 50+ crawling experiments showed no single maturation trigger.
Gesell’s Norms (1925 Atlas): Cephalocaudal motor sequences from 1,000 observations.
Indian: Kaur (2015 Yoga Study): 200 children; yoga improved gross motor by 25% vs. controls.
Implications: Montessori for fine skills; outdoor for gross.
7. Growth and Maturation
Physical focus: Growth (structural spurts); Maturation (functional, e.g., puberty hormones).
- Curve: Sigmoid (slow-fast-plateau).
- Adolescent: Spurt (girls 10-11 yr).
Gesell’s Twin Study (1920s): 80% genetic similarity in growth patterns.
Tanner’s Growth Charts (1962): Longitudinal UK data; adapted globally for maturation tracking.
Indian: Virmani (1990 Nutrition Study): 1,000 slum kids; supplements advanced maturation 6 months.
Implications: Puberty education; nutrition for spurts.
8. School Culture, Relationships with Teachers
Culture: Shared norms; Relationships: Trust-building bonds.
- Culture: Inclusive rituals vs. bullying.
- Relationships: Responsive for engagement.
Bronfenbrenner’s Mesosystem (1979): School-family links; studies showed strong bonds raise achievement 30%.
Bowlby’s Internal Working Models (1980): Teacher as secure base; 200+ attachment studies linked warmth to resilience.
Indian: NCERT (2005 NCF Study): Positive culture in 100 schools boosted attendance 20%.
Implications: Morning circles for rapport.
9. Teacher Expectations and School Achievement
Beliefs create self-fulfilling outcomes.
- Pygmalion Effect: High expectations → gains.
- Mechanisms: Attention, tasks.
Rosenthal & Jacobson’s Study (1968 Experiment): “Bloomers” IQ rose 15 points via labeled expectations in 650 students.
Merton’s Prophecy (1948 Sociological): Expectations shape behavior; meta-analysis confirmed 10-20% achievement variance.
Indian: Deshpande (2012 Caste Bias Study): 500 teachers; low expectations for SC/ST lowered scores 12%.
Implications: Growth mindset; unbiased feedback.
10. Being Out of School, Over-Age Learner
OOSC face exclusion; over-age lag from delays.
- Causes: Poverty, migration (6M India, UDISE 2023).
- Impacts: Gaps, low esteem.
- Support: Bridge courses (NIOS).
Haggerty’s Cumulative Deficit (1957 Longitudinal): Delayed entry compounds 2x gaps in 1,000 cohorts.
UNESCO’s EFA Report (2015 Global Study): OOSC lose 10% lifetime earnings; India-specific data on gender migration.
Indian: ASER (2022 Survey): 5% over-age; remedial programs recovered 40% literacy.
Implications: RTE reintegration; peer tutoring.