The rise of nationalism in Europe
The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
The French Revolution in 1789 is treated as a starting point for modern nationalism in Europe.
| Layer | Core Facts | Exam-Oriented Points |
|---|---|---|
| Chronology & Time | 1789 – Revolution begins; 1792 – France becomes a republic; later, Napoleon rises to power. | Use 1789 as base year when comparing other European events. |
| Political Systems & Power | Shift from absolute monarchy of Louis XVI to a constitutional order and then a republic. | National Assembly represented people, not only estates; power moved from king to citizens’ representatives. |
| Concepts of la patrie & le citoyen | “La patrie” (the fatherland) and “le citoyen” (the citizen) stressed that people were equal members of one nation. | Citizens owed duty to the nation, not to a king; this idea later inspired other European regions. |
| New Symbols & Culture | Tricolour flag replaced royal flag; new national anthem (La Marseillaise); new uniforms, festivals and political hymns. | Symbols unified people across regions through shared songs, colours and ceremonies. |
| Laws & Public Policies | Abolition of feudal dues; declaration of equal rights; later, Napoleonic Code simplified laws. | Uniform civil code was later exported to other parts of Europe by French armies. |
| Economy & Development | Common weights and measures, common currency in France; removal of internal trade barriers. | Helped create a single national market; supported growth of trade and industry. |
| Sources & Evidence | Constitution of 1791, Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, revolutionary songs and paintings. | These are used to study how the idea of “nation” was presented to common people. |
| Change & Impact | People began to see themselves as citizens of a nation-state, not subjects of a ruler. | French model of nationalism influenced Italy, Germany and many other regions. |
- French Revolution linked nationalism with ideas of rights, equality and citizenship.
- National symbols helped create unity across regions that earlier had separate local identities.
Memory Hook
Think: 1789 + la patrie + tricolour + abolition of feudalism = birth of modern French nation.
Exam Tip
When a question asks “how French Revolution shaped nationalism”, always mention: new ideas (citizen, rights), new symbols (flag, anthem) and new institutions (uniform laws, common currency).
Europe after Napoleon – Conservatism and Revolutions
After Napoleon’s fall, conservative rulers tried to restore old order, but liberal and national movements kept rising.
| Aspect | Key Details | Layer Link |
|---|---|---|
| Congress of Vienna, 1815 | Held after defeat of Napoleon; led by Austrian Chancellor Metternich; restored old dynasties and redrew borders. | Chronology & Political Systems – start of conservative order in Europe. |
| Conservative Order | Monarchs, nobles and church wanted strong monarchy, traditional society and control over people. | Political Power – focus on stability, not people’s participation. |
| Liberal Nationalists | Educated middle-class groups demanded freedom of press, elected assemblies and national unity. | Economy & Development – supported free markets and end of feudal restrictions. |
| Revolutions of 1830 | Uprising in France (1830) ended Bourbon monarchy; Belgium broke away from United Kingdom of Netherlands. | Change & Impact – showed that Vienna settlement could be challenged. |
| Revolutions of 1848 | Wider revolts across Europe; middle classes and workers demanded constitutions and rights; in France, monarchy again replaced by republic. | Comparative – 1848 linked to demands for both political rights and social justice. |
| Romanticism & Culture | Poets, artists and musicians used language, folk songs, folk tales and local history to build national feeling. | Culture & Belief Systems – gave emotional base to nationalism beyond laws and politics. |
| Sources & Evidence | Poems, paintings, folk collections, political pamphlets and memoirs. | Help understand how ordinary people imagined nations through culture. |
- Period after 1815 shows a struggle between old conservative forces and new liberal-national forces.
- Cultural nationalism (language, folk culture) prepared ground for later political unifications.
Memory Hook
Key sequence: 1815 Vienna → 1830 revolts → 1848 revolutions under rising liberal nationalism.
Exam Tip
If the question mentions Metternich or Vienna, connect it to conservative restoration; if it mentions 1830/1848, connect it to liberal-national revolutions and cultural Romanticism.
The Making of Germany (Unification of Germany)
Germany was unified under Prussian leadership through customs union, diplomacy and wars.
| Theme | Key Information | Layer View |
|---|---|---|
| Germany Before Unification | Collection of many small states and kingdoms under loose German Confederation; common language but political division. | Comparative – similar to divided Italy before unification. |
| Zollverein (Customs Union) | Created in 1834 under Prussian leadership; removed internal tariffs; unified many German states economically. | Economy & Development – first step towards economic integration and growth of railways and industry. |
| Key Ruler & Leader | King William I of Prussia as ruler; Otto von Bismarck as chief minister who led unification. | Rulers & Political Power – strong monarchy and bureaucracy guided process. |
| “Blood and Iron” Policy | Bismarck believed in military force and practical politics, not only speeches; used wars to unify Germany. | Laws & Policies – stress on army reforms, alliances and controlled nationalism. |
| Wars of Unification | War with Denmark (1864) over duchies; war with Austria (1866); war with France (1870–71). | Chronology – three wars in about seven years, ending with victory over France. |
| Proclamation of German Empire | 1871 – King of Prussia proclaimed German Emperor (Kaiser) at Versailles, France. | Change & Impact – creation of a powerful, militarised German nation-state in Europe. |
| Resources & Geography | Industrial regions like Ruhr became core of German power; access to coal and iron supported army and industry. | Geography Control – industrial strength improved military capacity. |
- Unification came from above (monarchy and army), not only from popular uprisings.
- Economic unity through Zollverein made political unity easier and more acceptable to business groups.
Memory Hook
Remember: Zollverein 1834 → Bismarck → wars 1864, 1866, 1870–71 → Empire 1871.
Exam Tip
Do not write that Germany unified through peaceful talks alone. Mention customs union plus “blood and iron” wars and the 1871 proclamation at Versailles.
The Making of Italy (Unification of Italy)
Italy was unified by a mix of secret societies, diplomacy and popular armed action.
| Aspect | Key Facts | Layer Connection |
|---|---|---|
| Italy Before Unification | Divided into many states – some ruled by local dynasties, some under Austrian control, central regions under the Pope. | Political Systems – no single Italian nation-state; foreign control was strong. |
| Key Personalities | Mazzini (revolutionary, Young Italy), Cavour (Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont), Garibaldi (popular military leader), Victor Emmanuel II (King of Sardinia-Piedmont). | Rulers & Leaders – each played different role: ideology, diplomacy, armed struggle, monarchy. |
| Chronology of Unification | 1859–60: Lombardy, Parma, Modena, Tuscany joined Sardinia-Piedmont; 1861: Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed king of Italy; 1866: Venetia added; 1870: Rome added, unification completed. | Change & Impact – step-by-step enlargement of Italian territory until Rome became capital. |
| Culture & National Feeling | Common language (Italian) and shared history used to create national identity; secret societies spread patriotic ideas. | Culture & Beliefs – strengthened feeling of belonging to one Italian nation. |
| Comparative View | Both Italy and Germany unified in the nineteenth century but Germany used stronger military methods; Italy relied more on alliances and popular volunteers. | Comparative Analysis – useful for table-based questions. |
- Mazzini gave early vision; Cavour used diplomacy; Garibaldi’s Red Shirts used armed action; Victor Emmanuel II gave monarchical frame.
- Foreign powers and the Papal States were gradually reduced in influence.
Memory Hook
Link 4 names to Italy: Mazzini (mind) – Cavour (brain) – Garibaldi (sword) – Victor Emmanuel II (crown).
Exam Tip
When a question asks “who led Italian unification”, write a combined answer with all four main personalities and key dates (1861, 1866, 1870).
Britain – A Different Story of Nationalism
Britain formed as a nation-state through gradual union of kingdoms, not a sudden revolution.
| Item | Details | Layer Focus |
|---|---|---|
| Act of Union 1707 | England and Scotland united to form “Great Britain”. Scottish Parliament was merged; English institutions dominated. | Chronology & Political Systems – early eighteenth-century union under monarchy and Parliament. |
| Ireland and Britain | Ireland was brought under British control; Act of Union 1801 formally joined Ireland to the United Kingdom. | Resources & Geography – one political unit controlled islands of Britain and Ireland. |
| Type of Nationalism | No single large-scale violent revolution like France; growth of a dominant English culture and institutions. | Comparative – “top-down” making of a nation, more through state power than popular revolt. |
| Culture & Symbols | Union Jack (flag), national anthem, figure of Britannia used to represent the British nation. | Culture & Beliefs – visual symbols helped combine several kingdoms into one identity. |
| Society & Inequality | Strong English control created tensions in Scotland and Ireland; many Irish people opposed union. | Change & Impact – later demands for Irish self-rule and partition in twentieth century. |
- Britain shows that nationalism can also grow through expansion of one dominant state over others.
- Parliamentary institutions and economic growth gave the British state strength to shape a “British” identity.
Memory Hook
Think of Britain’s path as Union Acts + English dominance + shared symbols instead of a single people’s revolution.
Exam Tip
If the question compares France and Britain, highlight: France – revolution from below; Britain – gradual union from above.
Visualising the Nation and Allegories
Artists used symbolic female figures and flags to make the idea of the nation easy to imagine.
| Nation | Allegory / Symbol | Meaning & Features |
|---|---|---|
| France | Marianne | Symbol of the French nation; shown wearing red cap of liberty, holding tricolour flag; used on coins and stamps. |
| Germany | Germania | Female figure holding sword and black-red-gold flag; represents strength and unity of German people. |
| Britain | Britannia | Armoured female with trident and shield; used to project power of British state and navy. |
| Flags & Emblems | Tricolour, Union Jack, eagles, lions | Used in rallies, official buildings, coins and public art to fix national identity. |
- These images turned the abstract idea of “nation” into something people could see and respect.
- They also carried hidden messages about bravery, liberty, strength and unity.
Memory Hook
Marianne → France, Germania → Germany, Britannia → Britain. All three are female figures standing for the nation.
Exam Tip
In picture-based questions, look for flags, weapons, caps and colours to decide which national allegory is shown.
Nationalism and Imperialism – The Balkan Question
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, nationalism mixed with power politics and created tensions that led to war.
| Theme | Key Points | Layer Link |
|---|---|---|
| The Balkans | Region in south-east Europe; many ethnic groups (Slavs, Greeks, Serbs, Bulgarians and others); once under Ottoman Empire. | Resources & Geography – important for sea routes and land links between Europe and Asia. |
| Rise of Nationalism | Different groups wanted their own nation-states; used history, folk traditions and language to show they were separate nations. | Culture & Beliefs – each group stressed its own identity and past glory. |
| Big Power Interests | Austria-Hungary, Russia and other powers wanted control or influence in the region. | Political Power – national feelings plus imperial aims created “Balkan problem”. |
| Link to World War | Tensions in Balkans contributed to outbreak of First World War in 1914. | Change & Impact – showed how aggressive nationalism and imperialism could lead to large wars. |
| Comparative View | Earlier nationalism in France, Germany and Italy led to creation of states; later Balkan nationalism led to conflicts and instability. | Comparative Analysis – nationalism can unify or divide, depending on context. |
- Nationalism was no longer only about liberty and rights; it was also linked to competition and expansion.
- Industrial and military developments increased the destructive power of such conflicts.
Memory Hook
“Balkan” in exams usually means ethnic mix + big power rivalry + road to First World War.
Exam Tip
If the question asks “how nationalism became aggressive”, use the Balkan example with both local national groups and great power interference.